ABSTRACT
All life on earth depends on water which is essential for the survival of every living organism. However, it's availability is limited. In many parts of the world, ground water servesbas a crucial source of water for various activities including irrigation, industry, drinking and manufacturing. Nevertheless, Rapid population growth and large scale urban migration have significantly increased water consumption. Human activities have adversely impacted ground water quality and quantity. Given groundwater's physical and chemical properties, it is better to access it's quality and map its availability. Clean water and sanitation are fundamental human rights and essential for survival, making the evaluation of drinking water quality and quantity Paramount.
This study evaluates the quality of underground water in the Birtamod municipality bybanalyzing the physiochemical characteristics of water samples using standard practices. 20 samples from 10 wards where collected and tested for 8 parameters that is pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen, (DO), total hardness (TH) and chloride (CL). These results where compared to the national drinking water quality standard set by the govenment of Nepal. The findings revealed that groundwater in all 10 Wards are slightly acidic PS values rendering it unsuitable for drinking. Most of the dissolved oxygen levels also same to be lower as compared to the standard value as prescribed by the national drinking water quality standard which stress aquatic life and ecosystems. However,, the remaining parameters of underground water in all the wards meet water quality standards indicating their suitability for drinking. Consequently, it is recommended to regular monitor and treat underground water before uses to insure its safety.
1. INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Background of Study
Water is one of the most abundant natural resources on the Earth, and is an essential component of life. About 71% of the Earth's surface is covered with water. Water is crucial for all living organisms from the smallest microbe to the largest mammal. The main sources of water are oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground. Water consist of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one oxygen atom thus forming a polar molecule and it is represented by the molecular formula (H2O). The unique characteristic of water, including its ability to exist in three states and its role as a solvent, make it essential for the survival of life on Earth. Water is not uniformly distributed across the Earth, with some areas experiencing scarcity of water while others have an abundance of water. Many regions in the earth are experiencing significant challenge of water scarcity which is expected to be in worse condition in the coming years due to climate change.
FIGURE 1: Structure of water
Water is a unique polar chemical substance with its ability to exist in three stages solid, liquid and gas. Water in its various States is integral to earth environment and biological system. The solid state that is ice particularly in polar ice caps and glaciers place a vital role by reflecting sunlight. This reflection helps maintain cooler Global temperatures period which is essential for regulating the earth's overall climate. In addition water in its liquid from acts as universal solvent, facilitating, biochemical reactions and nutrient transport. It is crucial for hydration agriculture and many other applications. Additionally, it helps regulate body temperature in living organisms. Water in its gaseous states that is vapor is a key component of the earth's atmosphere. It participates in the water cycle processes such as evaporation, condensation and precipitation. This is also important for temperature regulation on the planet, influencing climate and weather patterns.
Water is indispensable for human life and place a fundamental role in numerous daily activities such as drinking, farming, industry, recreation and medical treatments. The necessity of clean drinking water is Paramount for maintain health and overall well being. Despite the substantial portion of the Global population lacks access to this critical resource. The United Nations reports that 2.2 billion individual do not have safe drinking water with projections indicating this issue will over soon due to increasing population urban expansion and climate change. The scarcity of clean drinking water leads to significant health challenges including the spread of diseases such as cholera, typhoid and dysentery. All the access to safe water is a basic human rights. Achieving this goal remains difficult for many countries. The lack of clean and safe water results in several adverse efects.
Health Hazards: Inadequate access to clean water leads to waterborne diseases like Cholera, dysentery and typhoid and exacerbate malnutrition and cause dehydration.
Economic Challenges: The economic cost of treating waterborne diseases its substantial in reasons without clean water individuals often spend considerable time gathering water which diminishes productivity and economics prospects particularly for women.
Environmental Issues: Poor water management practices can cause environmental degradation including pollution biodiversity loss and Ecosystem damage.
Thus, contaminated water can have various adverse effect on health, economics and environment. Addressing this issue requires various approach, including improving water infrastructure, promoting sustainable water management practices, and insuring that all people have access to safe and clean water.
Even if water is an integral and crucial component of life and the quality of water is vital to human health and environment. On the other hand the quality of water is declining due to Rapid growth of global population, urbanization and various human activities such as the use of insecticides and pesticides. So Emphasis should be given to test the purity of water. Quality of drinking water in terms of physical, chemical and biological safety has come to focus on research efforts due to its effects on human health. (Asare et al, 2015)
Water is considered to be polluted when the quality perimeter of water exceeds its standard value. Contaminated water is a great concern for the world and it is directly and indirectly related to the health hazards. Enandrakli and et al. 2016 studied the variations of physiochemical parameters and result show that anthropogenic activities are the major cause of contamination of water. Asare et al. 2016 suggested that groundwater is enriched with sulphate bicarbonate and calcium ions. Water on earth is abundant and on evenly distributed across the different reservation which are listed below:
Nepal is rich in water resources, boasting and extensive network of rivers, lakes and glaciers largely due to its location in the Himalayas. The countries unique topography with range is from the high Himalayas to the lowland Terai plains contributes significantly two its water wealth. Water and energy commission secretariat (WECS, 2011) stated that, there are about 6000 rivers in Nepal, having drainage area of 191000 sq. Km, 74% of which lies in Nepal alone. Similarly, underground water is a crucial resource in Nepal specially for drinking and irrigation. Due to the complexity of the countries geology and physiography. groundwater can be found in a variety of natural settings in Nepal. Groundwater is used as source of drinking water especially in Terai regions and Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. People in rural areas frequently lacks access to piped water delivery systems. Therefore, they significantly rely on groundwater resources like Wells and tube wells. Groundwater resources in the hills and mountains have not yet been truly examined and evaluated. Groundwater from both Deep and shallow aquifers is suitable for irrigation without any treatment but for drinking and industrial uses treatment is important.
Figure 2: Water resources of Nepal
1.2Underground Water availability
The Terai region of Nepal is characterized by its flat low- lying landscape which is enriched with abundant alluvial deposits. This features make it an ideal location for groundwater recharge. The high amount of rainfall in this area significantly contributes to a substantial supply of water both on the surface and underground. This water can be utilized for various proposes such as domestic, Industrial and agricultural needs. In the context of Nepal, the Terai region and Kathmandu Valley are rich in groundwater resources. This regions are rich in groundwater resources because of the presence of aquifers. Aquifers can be defined as geological formations consisting of highly porous rocks such as sand and gravel, which can hold and store significant amount of water. This water can be assessed and supplied through wells or boreholes overtime.
However, in the hilly Reason of Nepal groundwater is scares because, predominant Rock types are crystalline and highly compact. These compact Rock prevent water from easily passing through. Thus, limiting availability of groundwater. Consequently, even with significant rainfall, the Limited groundwater hampers agriculture development in this areas. There are primarily two types of aquifers system in Nepal's Terai region: shallow aquifers (0-46m depth) and deep aquifer system (>46 m depth). (Groundwater Development and Conservation (GDC), 1994).Shallow aquifer are also called unconfined aquifer that means, they are directly influenced by surface conditions. Such shallow aquifers are mostly found in terai region of Nepal. They can be recharge primarily by local precipitation river, infiltration and irrigation return flow. More easily contaminated from the surface activities including pesticides and fertilizers and they often have arsenic contamination as well. In the same way, deep aquifers are also called confined aquifers that means, they are trapped between impermeable layer of rocks or clay which protects them from the direct surface contamination. Recharging of deep acquired is a slower and longer process and often extended period of time. The method which can be used to recharge deep acquired is the infiltration of water from higher elevation. Water obtained from Deep aquifer is less susceptible to contamination and of higher quality as compared to the shallow aquifer. Contamination like arsenic and fluoride can be seen in deep aquifer. Although it is scant or non existent in Kapilvastu and Nawalparasi, the shallow aquifers generally seems unconfined and well developed (Upadhyaya, 1993. The deep aquifer of the terai is reported to be artesian (Basnyat, 2001)
FIGURE 3: Schematic diagram of aquifer
1.3Characteristic of Underground Water
Groundwater is a reliable resource used for drinking farming and industrial proposes. It is located below the Earth surface within Soil pore spaces and rock formation. The quality of this water can differ significantly due to the varying geological make up of aquifers and geological location and any containments it may have picked up along the way. Similarly groundwater is also affected by pollution from agriculture run of Industrial waste and other sources. The flow of underground water is affected by certain factors such as permeability of the materials, the slope of the land and so on. The temperature of underground water is more stable than the surface water. The movement and distribution of groundwater can also be studied and the study is called Hydro geology. The underground water supply is affected by the conditions like drought climate change and human activities like excessive pumping or contamination. Moreover, underground water could serve as a substantial source of geothermal energy, a sustainable form of power that harness the inherent heat found naturally within the earth.
In the context of Nepal, Department of water supply and sewage Management (DESSM), 2019) shows that merely 51.69% of the population have piped water coverage and the remaining 48.31% are relying on unpiped locally and privately managed systems like private tube wells.
The underground water temperature tend to be more stable than surface water temperature because the underground environment is less impacted by weather in seasonal fluctuations then surface water. Water enters an aquifer by the process called recharge. Groundwater recharge rate is defined as the level at which water is replenished in an aquifer. Factors such as precipitation, land use and human activities affect the recharge rate. We can manage our water resources more efficiently and guard them against contamination and depletion by understanding the features of underground water and how it travels through the soil. There are various techniques that are used for getting water out of the Earth surface. The techniques includes Springs, wells, infiltration, galleries, horizontal wells, collector wells, underground tunnels etc. It is our duty to know the effect of over extraction and aquifer depletion so to avoid these problems. Extraction in ethical and sustainable way is vital. Groundwater is vital for billions of people as a key drinking water source, facilities agriculture irrigation and supports numerous industries making it fundamental to both human survival and economic stability. For insuring long term sustainability and residence of water resources preservation of groundwater is essential. So preservation of underground water is crucial. For the preservation of underground water various management techniques can be included such as monitoring water levels and recharge rate, cutting back on water consumption and conserving recharge reason.
Figure 4: Tube well:Source of underground water
1.4 Physiochemical Parameters
Water is essential for life, ranking just after air in its importance. Ensuring the quality of water is crucial for both environmental health and human well-being. Magadum et al (2017) suggested that quality of water is defined in terms of its physical, chemical and biological parameters. The physiochemical parameters are used to assess the quality and suitability of water, the physical parameters include turbidity, temperature, color, taste and odor, dissolves solids, and electrical conductivity. Generally water is colorless and odorless in its pure form. In real world situations, impurities or contaminants in water can cause it to have noticeable colors or odors. For example, a musty or earthy odor may point of presence of algae or bacteria, whereas a brown or yellow tint could be a sign of contamination from organic waste or metals in water. The chemical parameters include pH, acidity alkalinity ions like chloride (cl), sulphate (So.), Nitrates (No3), heavy metals like Iron, Manganese, copper, zinc, hardness, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand (BOD), Chemical oxygen Demand (COD). pH levels indicate the acidity or alkalinity of water, with acidic water potentially causing pipe corrosion and alkaline water leading to scale buildup. Dissolved oxygen, which measures the amount of oxygen dissolved in water, is vital for the survival of aquatic organisms. Maintaining proper pH and dissolved oxygen levels is essential for healthy water systems and aquatic life.
1.4.1 pH
The pH scale quantifies the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution indicating its Level of acidity or alkalinity. This scale ranges from 0 to 14 with values below 7. Signifying acidic solutions values above 7 indicating alkaline or basic solutions and ph of 7 representing a neutral solution. Pure water is a classic example of a neutral substance having pH of 7. The pH level of water is key in evaluating its corrosiveness. Elevated pH values can arise from several factors, primarily the presence of Alkaline substances such as sodium hydroxide or calcium carbonate. Another factor is the low concentration of carbon dioxide as CO2 dissolves in water to form carbonic acid with help to lower pH. Additionally hard water which contains high level of calcium and magnesium exhibit higher pH. Water can become more alkaline through interaction with minerals like lime stone or through biological activity such as those of certain algae and plants that produce basic substances. Conversely, water can become acidic due to several factors. The primary contributors to acidity is the presence of substances like Sulphuric or nitric acid. Additionally natural processes including the dissolution of acidic minerals are the release of organic acid from decaying vegetations and Soil can also lower the pH of water. Water can be measured by using a pH meter or test kit. It is important to maintain the optimal water quality and protect human health and the environment. Drinking water quality standard issued by the government of Nepal the acceptable concentration limit for pH is 6.5-8.5. (NDWQS, 2005)
1.4.2 Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity in water measures its capacity to conduct an electrical current. This conductivity Rises with increasing ion concentration. Navneet Kumar et al. (2010) suggest that the underground drinking water quality of study area can be checked effectively by controlling conductivity of water quality management of other study areas. As a critical parameter electrical conductivity provides insights into water quality and composition like salinity, total dissolved solids, water purity, and corrosivity. In natural conditions pure water which contain low concentration of ion exhibits poor electrical conductivity.
Thus, Variation in conductivity can reveal important information about the presence and concentration of dissolved substances in the water. Whereas the electrical conductivity of water improves when ions are introduced such as by that is solution of salts or other electrolytes. The unit of measurement of electrical conductivity of water is µS/cm or S/cm. Fresh water generally exhibit between 0 to 1500 S/cm and typically sea water has a conductivity value of about 50000 S/cm. The electrical conductivity of water is used in
many industries as an indication of the purity of the water (Jones 2002). According to the national drinking water Quality standard issued by the government of Nepal, the acceptable concentration limit for electrical conductivity is 1500 S/cm. (NDWQS, 2005)
Table 3: Water type and conductivity
1.4.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Total dissolved solids TDS indicates the concentration of dissolved substance in water. The dissolved substances include used Range of organic salts, organic matter and other dissolve materials like minerals, metals and ions. TDS is a key measure of water quality affecting its taste, hardness and appropriateness for different uses. TDS levels are usually measured in parts per million (PPM) or milligram per liter mg/l. High levels of TDS in water indicate that it has a lot of dissolved substances which can impact its taste and potentially cause scaling in pipes and appliances. Conversely, very low TDS levels might mean the water is missing important minerals which can affect both its flavor and potential health benefits. To measure TDS, TDS meter or conductivity meter is used which estimates the total concentration of dissolved solids best on how will the water conducts electricity. While this measurement provides a general idea of concentration of dissolved materials it doesn't specify their exact nature. According to National drinking water quality standard issued by the government of Nepal the acceptable concentration limit for TDS is 1000 milligram per liter. (NDWQS, 2005)
1.4.4 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolve oxygen is the amount of oxygen that is found in water. It plays the key role in supporting the survival of fish, invertebrates and microorganisms in aquatic environment. This measure is also essential for evaluating water quality. Generally, higher level of dissolved oxygen indicate better water quality. Oxygen enters water through two main processes, it diffuses from the air into water and is also produced by photosynthesis in aquatic plants. Oxygen level can change due to various factors, including water temperature, salinity, and amount of organic material present. Warmer temperature generally lowers the oxygen solubility, so, warm water typically contains less oxygen than cooler water. Additionally, high organic matter such as from decaying vegetation or west water can increase microbial activity, which consumes Oxygen and can reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. Low level of dissolved oxygen can lead to hypoxia which can put stress or Kill aquatic life. Monitoring and managing dissolved oxygen level is crucial for keeping aquatic environment healthy and supporting diverse species. To measure dissolve oxygen, a sensor or meter is often used, which reports the amount in milligram per litre or parts per million. Additionally, iodometric titration is another method used to measure dissolve oxygen level. According to WHO the standard acceptable value of dissolved oxygen is 1.5 mg/L for drinking water.
1.4.5 Hardness
Water hardness refers to the concentration of multivalent cations, particularly calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions present in water. This hardness arises from the interaction of water with minerals in the soil and rocks leading to The dissolution of calcium and magnesium compounds. Including bicarbonates, Sulphate, chloride and nitrate. To quantify water hardness, the amount of calcium carbonate CaCO3 equivalent present in the water is often measured. This is commonly expressed in milligrams per liter mg/1 or parts per million PPM. Water that contains low minerals is referred to as soft where as water that contains plenty of minerals is referred to as hard. There is no conclusive evidence that water hardness cause adverse help in human other than and increase of kidney stone. (Bellizzi et al, 1999). water harness is a natural characteristic of water that varies depending on the geology and location of the water source. According to WHO, the standard acceptable value of hardness is 100 mg/l. There are two types of hardness: Temporary and Permanent Hardness.
1.4.5.1 Temporary Hardness
Temporary hardness in water is primarily due to dissolved bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium 9mg). While boiling the water, the bicarbonates decompose into carbonates, which then form insoluble carbonate minerals. These minerals can be removed from the water by filtration.
The reaction of decomposition is:
Ca(HCO3) = CaCO3 + CO2 + H₂O
Mg (HCO3)2 = MgCO3 + CO2 + H₂O
1.4.5.2 Permanent Hardness
Permanent hardness in water is caused by the presence of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) salts like sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates. Unlike temporary hardness, which can be removed by boiling. permanent hardness requires treatments methods such as ions exchange or complexometric titration using EDTA, as a complexing agent in presence of solo chrome black indicator. While hardness can sometimes be seen as beneficial because it adds essential minerals to drinking water and can improve taste, it can also reduce the solubility of some toxic metals and help prevent pipe corrosion by forming a protective layer. Permanent hardness leads to scale buildup in appliances and pipes, reducing their efficiency and lifespan, and increasing maintenance costs. It interferes with the effectiveness of soaps and detergents, causing scum formation leaving residues on surfaces, fabrics and dishes. Permanent hardness of water can be calculated as :
Permanent hardness = concentration of calcium + concentration of magnesium.
1.4.6 Chloride
Chloride is a key parameter for accessing water quality. It naturally occurs in water through processes like the dissolution of salt deposits and sea water intrusion. However, high levels of chloride can suggest pollution from sources like sewage or industrial waste which can have harmful effects on eco systems and human health. Elevated chloride levels can disrupt metabolic processes in aquatic organisms and affect water quality overall. Also, high level of chloride can corrode pipelines and infrastructures, necessitating expensive repairs or replacement. High concentration of chloride can impact a salty taste to drinking water, making it unpleasant for drinking. According to the national drinking water quality standard issued by the government of Nepal and WHO, the acceptable concentration limit for chloride is 250 mg/L. (NDWQS, 2005)
1.5 Objective
1.5.1 General Objectives
To estimate the quality of water, it is very necessary to analyze its physio-chemical parameters. By comparing the results of various physio-chemical parameter to establish standard, we can gauge water quality. Samples of underground water from different areas have been collected and subjected to specific test. This allows us to identify the physio-chemical characteristic of water and evaluate them against standard values.
1.5.2 Specific Objectives
The primary aim of this research is to evaluate the physio-chemical properties of underground water in Birtamode municipality, Jhapa. The six parameters like pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Dissolved Oxygen, Total Hardness, and Chloride were estimated. The data gathered will facilitate understanding of the water's hygienic state and can serves as basic for designing an action to improve the quality of drinking water in the study area.
CHAPTER 2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Literature review
Groundwater quality is essential for multiple critical reasons. Primarily, it is vital source of drinking water for millions worldwide and contaminants such as heavy metals, nitrates and pathogens can pose significant health risk including gastrointestinal diseases, reproductive issues and neurological disorders. Further more, ground water is crucial for agriculture as it is widely used for irrigation. Poor water quality can negatively impact crop help and yields leading to economic losses and food scarcity challenges. Additionally, aquatic ecosystem rely on clean groundwater to maintain their balance, contamination can harm plants, animal and microorganisms, disrupting these ecosystems. Economically, industries and municipalities depend on groundwater for various purpose and poor water quality can increase treatment cost and effect industrial productivity. Therefore, understanding and monitoring the physiochemical parameters of groundwater is to safeguard public health, support agriculture, protect ecosystems and ensure sustainable water resources.
A.K. Shrestha and N. Basnet conducted an extensive investigation in 2016 to educate the municipality and local of Damak, Jhapa about the harmful impacts of water pollution on their health and recreational activities. The Ratuwa River was the subject of which examined 18 physiochemical characteristics to evaluate the water quality and its potential effects on the neighborhood. The results showed that the majority of variables under investigation fell within the National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS). Turbidity and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels were over the suggested limits. These high levels of turbidity and BOD indicate serious decline in the Ratuwa River's water quality, which has an immediate impact on people's health and leisure activities. Before the water from this river may be utilized for drinking purposes, it is essential to subject it to preliminary treatment to assure the safety of the local inhabitants. To make the water safe to drink, this treatment process would use the proper filtration and purification techniques to eliminate the suspended particles, organic pollutants, and other toxins present in the water. By disseminating these study results, the researchers aimed to create awareness among the municipality and people of Damak, Jhapa, urging them to take proactive measures to address the pollution of Ratuwa river. This would not only safeguard the health of the community but also preserve the ecological integrity of the river, ensuring its sustainability for future generation (A.K. Shrestha, N Basnet, 2016)
A study was done in three districts of the Eastern Terai region of Nepal (Morang, Jhapa and Sunsari) for ground water quality by analyzing various physiochemical parameters and using statistical approaches. The results indicated that most of the analyzed parameters were within the acceptable limits for drinking water see by the World Health Organization (WHO), except for PH, turbidity, Ammonia, iron, fluoride and manganese. Some correlations were observed between different water quality parameters such as EC, TDS, Chloride, Total Hardness, Calcium Hardness, Manganese, and total alkalinity. The study highlighted significance of the three districts through ANOVA, Tukey, and clustering analysis. It was found that groundwater can generally be considered safe, there is a potential for contamination in the heavily industrialized areas of Morang and Sunsari due to chemical waste. The physio -chemical characteristics, including hardness, alkalinity, fluoride, chloride, ammonia, and heavy metals (irons, manganese, arsenic) were also assessed. Statistical analysis shows that the mean and median values of most parameters were within the WHO and Nepal Drinking Water Quality standards, (NDWQS) guidelines, except turbidity, fluoride, iron and manganese. Tube well water was ground to have higher total hardness and magnesium contained compared to bore well water. Overall the study provides insight into the current status of groundwater quality in the region and highlights areas of potential concern for water (Mahoto et.al, 2018) B.R Pant conducted a research in the Kathmandu valley, Nepal and aimed to assess the quality of groundwater by analyzing physical chemical and microbiological parameters. The study used a random sampling approach to gather groundwater samples from different kinds of wells throughout the three districts. Using the World Health Organization's drinking water quality recommendations as a guideline, various parameters including iron concentration, coli form bacteria presents, electrical conductivity turbidity, pH value, arsenic, chloride, fluoride and hardness levels were accessed. The study's findings cost alarm regarding the Kathmandu valley's groundwater quality. The amount of iron found in the groundwater samples was higher than the WHO recommendation, which may indicate long term iron intake possess health hazards. The study also discovered the shallow wells had the highest coliform counts with total coliform bacteria being detected at level above the drinking water quality limit. The results indicate that action to mitigate groundwater contamination in the Kathmandu valley is urgently required. Installing water treatment and purification system is advised to get rid of impurities like iron and coliform bacteria. Public awareness campaigns should be run to inform the general public of the dangers of drinking contaminated groundwater and the value of clean drinking water, regular monitoring and survey program should be formulated and implemented (Pant B.R, 2011).
Groundwater plays a crucial role in supporting economic growth, yet it is often underestimated, mismanaged, and insufficiently safeguarded. The quality of groundwater is.influenced by a range of chemical elements and their geological conditions of a specific area. Unfortunately, in the face of increasing demands for new water sources, efforts to conserve and restore vital resource are lacking. This oversight poses significant challenges to sustainable development. Despite its essential function, ground water resource management receives minimal attention and funding. The necessity of protecting and effectively managing current groundwater reserves is frequently overshadowed undermining their vast potential and benefits. Nation must recognize their significant socioeconomic dependence on groundwater and prioritize the establishment of effective institutional frameworks for its management to avoid an impending crisis. Governments, decision-makers and other relevant stakeholders must act swiftly to manage resource once they recognize the severity of the situation. Formulation of effective conservation measures and their implantation and the establishment of effective regulatory frameworks to guarantee the sustainable use of groundwater is required. Groundwater reserves face the risk of irreversible depletion, which would have severe consequences for people, ecosystem and economics. Changing the prevailing mindset and fostering a deep understanding of the importance of groundwater resources is essential. By doing so societies can unlock their full potential, protect this invaluable asset for future generations and promote sustainable economic development and growth.
CHAPTER -3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1.Study Area
The research work was done in Birtamod Municipality. It is situated at 26.6667 North Latitude and 88.6167 East Longitude in Jhapa district in the southern eastern part of Nepal. It lies close to the India-Nepal boarder. The area has subtropical climate. The municipality experiences average rainfall in the range of (2000 to 2500) mm yearly. The people of this municipality primarily get their water through wells, tube wells and pipes. Tube wells are most commonly used water sources. There are total 10 wards in this municipality.
3.2 Sampling Method
To evaluate the quality of groundwater, samples were randomly collected. According to usual practice, ground water sampling is done using nearby hand pumps. The samples were collected in clean mineral water bottles. Each sample was properly labeled and permanently marked with the marker. The parameters were tested in the lab of Mechi Multiple Campus.
3.4 Analysis of Physiochemical Parameters
3.4.1 pH Measurement
The of water was measured using bench type pH meter. The pH meter was calibrated by using buffer solution of pH = 7 and pH 10. The electrode was dipped in a beaker containing water sample. The respective reading was noted down from the display of pH meter.
3.4.2Conductivity Measurement
The deluxe conductivity meter (model 60) was used to measure the conductivity of water sample. At first, the conductivity meter was calibrated by using 0.5 mm (millimole) solution. After that, the conductivity was measured by dipping conductivity cell into different water sample.
3.4.3Hardness Estimation
Total hardness of water was determined by the titration method. At first, 50 ml of water was taken and added 2 ml of buffer solution of pH 10 and few drops of solo chrome black indicator was added to it which develop wine colored sample. After that, it was titrated with standard EDTA solution till the pure blue color was obtained concurrent reading was noted for teach sample. Total hardness was calculated by using the formula:
Total Hardness Calcium Carbonate = Wt.of EDTA (mL)/Sample of Water (ml) x1000
3.4.4 Chloride Estimation
Titration technique was used to determine the presence of chloride in water sample. For this purpose 50 ml of water sample was taken and 4, 5 drops of potassium chromate indicator was added to it. Then it was titrated with 0.02N silver nitrate solution. At the end point, the yellow colored sample was changed into brick red color. Concurrent reading were then noted for all samples. Chloride was calculated by using following formula.
Chloride (mg/L) =
Volume of AgNO3/Volume of Sample x35.5x100
3.4.5 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
lodometric titration technique was used to determine the dissolved oxygen in the samples of water. The water samples were collected in 300 ml capacity bottles almost upto the brim and closed the cover of the bottle so that no air gap remains. Then about 5 ml of water was discarded from the bottle and 2 ml of MnSO4 solution and 2 ml of alkaline 20% KI solution was added. The bottle was shaken and allowed to stand for 10 minute. Then 2 ml of 85% phosphoric acid was added. The bottle was stoppered and shaken turning the bottle upside down for 3 to 4 times until the brown ppt dissolved. After that 100 ml portion of the sample solution was prepared from the bottle in 250 ml conical flask and titrated with m/80 Na2S2O3 solution by adding 2 ml of starch solution until the bluish black color discharged to give pale yellow colour. Amount of dissolved oxygen was calculated by using Formula:
Amount of dissolved O₂ (mg/L) =0.1/100 x volume of the thio solution x 1000
3.4.6 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)
The total dissolved solid was determined by using the plain test TDS meter.
CHAPTER 4
Result and Discussion
Physiochemical analysis of the underground water of Birtamode municipality was performed with the measurement of the six different parameters in 20 samples collected from all the 10 wards of the municipality. Electrical conductivity's (EC), PH, Total dissolved Solids (TDS). Total Hardness (TH), Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Chloride were the parameters that were examined. The result showed that all of the measured parameters are within the acceptable range.
EC values for the samples ranged from 72.3 to 598 S/cm. the highest EC was found in sample number 8, which was much higher than other samples. Low levels of Dissolved salts were found in all other samples which all had EC values significantly below the standard value the pH values of the samples ranged from 5.31 to 6.42. this shows that all the samples of water are slightly acidic. The samples total dissolved solid concentrations ranged from 51.3 to 376 mg/l. this verified that all the tested value are well below the reference value of 1000 mg/l.
This suggest that the water being measured has a relatively low concentration of dissolved solid at least compared to the relevant standard. The samples' total hardness concentrations varied from 40 to 212 mg/l. All of the samples had calcium and magnesium lon/1 given concentrations that where significantly lower than the reference value of 500 mg by NDWQS. The samples dissolved oxygen readings with range from 1.6 to 9.7 mg/l, So that the water was adequately oxygenated. Lastly the chloride values for the samples range from 26.9 to 248.7 mg / 1. All of which where below the standard value of 250 mg / 1 indicating low levels of dissolved chloride. Therefore based on the data, there was no chloride contamination in the water samples. The overall findings shows that the water samples examined in the study area are of acceptable quality and appropriate for a variety of uses. The low EC, TDS and TH values indicates that the water has low levels of dissolve salt and Minerals which makes it suitable for drinking, irrigation and other agriculture purposes. The water was slightly acidic based on the examined pH value which can cause corrosion of pipes and plumbing system and may effect the metabolic activities of the aquatic life forms. In conclusion the water samples examined in this study are of good quality and acceptable for a variety of uses. However it is crucial to remember that water quality can change over time so regular monitoring is necessary to ensure continued quality.
CHAPTER 5
5. CONCLUSION
The Birtamod municipality underground water has undergone a physiochemical analysisand the results indicate that the water is of acceptable quality and suitable for several uses. 20 samples which were drawn from each of the municipality ward were tested for 6 separate parameters. The parameters such as pH, EC, TDS, TH, DO and chloride of most of the samples found in the range prescribed by NDWQS. Almost all of the areas of the Birtamode municipality shows ph lower than the value prescribed By NDWQS, Which is slightly acidic and maybe harmful for drinking. All of the samples of water has EC lower than prescribed by NDWQS which shows that water is suitable for drinking. All the reported hardness value within the acceptable range of NDWQS. Chloride concentrations are also in the suitable range as prescribed by NDWQS. Hence, physiochemical parameters can be determined and compared for the assessment of quality and suitability of water for drinking and other various purpose.
APPENDIX-1 (STANDARD VALUES)
Government of Nepal
clause 18 and Sub clause 1.
TABLE 7: NATIONAL DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARD
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