Subject: Plant Diversity & Ecology Practical Year:1 (BOT101) Theory (Major/Minor)
Botany 2nd year Syllabus
Course Objectives (Bot. 101 and Bot. (102)
- To introduce concept of diversity of lower (non-vascular) plants and higher (vascular) plants, with
- suitable examples
- To give a comparative idea of range of vegetative and reproductive structures
- To explain the life cycle patterns
- To recognize the evolutionary trends in different groups of plants.
Unit 1. Introduction
Theophrastus; Dioscorides; Pliny the Elder; John Ray; Carolus Linnaeus); Basis for
classification; Classification type (Artificial and Natural); Hierarchical classification of living
things (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus,
Species).……..........…..……........................................................................................….1
2. Two-Kingdom system:
Two-Kingdom System by Linnaeus (Plantae and Animalia); Limitations of the Two-Kingdom System; Three-Kingdom System (Haeckel 1866); The Copeland FourKingdom System (Monera, Protista, Plantae and Animalia); Limitations of the Copeland System…….....................................................................………........…2
3. Five-Kingdom system (Whittaker 1969):
Characteristics of the Five-Kingdom System; Monera(Archaebacteria and Eubacteria); Protoctista/Protista (Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates,Euglenoids, Slime Moulds, Protozoans); Fungi (Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes,Deuteromycetes); Plantae (Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms);Animalia (Viruses, Viroids and Lichen); Concept of Six- Kingdoms (Archaebacteria,Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia).................................................…..2
Suggested Readings:
2. Taylor, D.J., Green, N.P.O. and Stout, G.W. 1997. Biological Science. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press.
3. Whittaker, R. H. 1969. New concepts of kingdom of organisms. Science, New Series 163 (3863):150 – 160.
Unit 2. Kingdom: Monera
1. General characteristics: Features of Bacteria; Morphology; Cell structure (capsule, cell wall,cell membrane,cytoplasm,genetic material, ribosomes,inclusion bodies, flagella)................1
2. Classification up to class (Whittaker1969)....................................................1
3. Reproduction (Binary fission; Spore formation; Transformation; Conjugation and Transduction)......................................1
4. Economic importance bacteria: Beneficial activities: Genetic engineering; Bacteria and Soil fertility; Bacterial metabolism-its commercial importance; Bacteria as human symbionts; Harmful effects: Spoilage of food stuff; Causes of animal diseases; Causes of human diseases; Causes of plant diseases.....................................1
Oscillatoria (Cyanobacteria)
General characteristics: General features; Systematic position (Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus);Occurrence; Structure of the thallus. Reproduction: Vegetative reproduction (Fragmentation); Asexual reproduction (Hormogonia formation, Akinete or resting spore). Economic importance. Life cycle: Diagrammatic representatives…………….1
Spirulina (Cyanobacteria)
General characteristics: General features; Systematic position (Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus);Occurrence; Structure of the thallus; Cell structure. Reproduction: Vegetative reproduction (Binary fission);Asexual reproduction (Hormogonia formation). Economic importance. Life cycle: Diagrammatic representation..............................1
Suggested Readings:
2. Kumar, H.D. and S. Kumar. 1998. Modern Concepts of Microbiology. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
3. Rao, A.S. 2004. Introduction to Microbiology. University Prentice'Hall of India, New Delhi.
4. Shrivastava, R. P. and S. B. Agarwal. Modern Text Book of Botany: Algae, Fungi, Bacteria,Virus and Lichen. Vol. I. 267.Bacteria (220-240)
Unit 3.A. Kingdom: Fungi (Mycota)
1. Introduction of fungi: General features (Distribution of fungi; Cell structure; Habitat and Habitat [Aquatic,Terrestrial, Parasitic (Ectoparasite, Endoparasite): Obligate, Facultative; Saprophytic: Obligate,Facultative; Symbiosis)]; Somatic structure (Unicellular; Filamentous: Aseptate, Septate); Aggregation and
i) Plectenchyma
a) Prosenchyma
b) Pseudoparenchyma],
ii) Rhizomorph
iii)Stroma
iv) Sclerotium
v) Appressorium
vi) Haustorium).………………………………..….……...1
i) Nutritional requirements
ii) Essential elements
iii) Reserve food; Growth factors: Temperature, light, moisture. Reproduction:
a) Vegetative reproduction (Fragmentation & Budding);
b) Asexual reproduction (Conidia, Zoospores, Spores, Chlamydospores, Oidiospores);
c) Sexual reproduction [Planogametic copulation, Gametangial contact (gametangiogamy), Gametangial copulation,Spermatization, Somatogamy].…1
3. Classification of fungi: A natural system of classification of fungi as proposed by G.C. Anisworth (1973)(Kingdom,Division, Sub-division, Class, Order, Family, Genus,Species).........1
Albugo candida (Cystopus)
Reproduction: Vegetative (fragmentation); Asexual reproduction (conidia formation) and Sexual
reproduction (Oogamous type). Life cycle: Diagrammatic representation. Economic importance: ‘White rust disease’, Symptoms of diseases, Control measure (Chemical method; Biological method; Agriculture method)…..1
Aspergillus (Eurotium )
General features; Systematic position; Habit and habitat (occurrence or distribution); Somatic structure.
Reproduction: Vegetative reproduction (fragmentation); Asexual reproduction (conidia formation); Sexual reproduction (Formation of antheridia and archicarps; Fertilization, Cleistothecium/Ascocarp formation [closed fruiting body]; Ascus; Ascospores. Life cycle: (Haplophase, Dikaryophase, Diplophase) Diagrammatic representation. Economic importance: Useful activities: Destruction of organic waste; Industrial mycology; Bio-assays; Antibiotics; Vitamins; Therapeutic uses; Enzymes; Fat production; etc. Harmful effects: Spoilage of food; Tropical deterioration; Mycoses;....……………....…….2
Peziza (Sac fungi)
General features; Systematic position; Habit and habitat (occurrence or distribution); Somatic structure.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction (conidia formation); Sexual reproduction (Somatogamy, Ascogenous hyphae, Crozier formation, Karyogamy, Ascus, Ascospores, Apothecium (fruiting body). Structure of apothecium (Hymenium, Hypothecium, Excipulum). Life cycle: Diagrammatic representation. Economicimportance: ….....…2
Agaricus or psalliota (Club fungi)
General features; Systematic position; Habit and habitat (occurrence or distribution); Somatic structure (monokaryotic and dikaryotic mycelium). Reproduction: Asexual reproduction (chlamydospores, oidia); Sexual reproduction (Somatogamy; Development of sporophores (Fructification); Basidiocarp (Mature fructification); Basidiospores). Structure of Basidiocarp (Stipe, Pileus, Gills); Liberation and germination of the basidiospores. Life cycle: Diagrammatic representation.
Economic importance: Useful activites: Sources of food, decomposition of dead bodies, wastes materials, Ink, etc. Harmful effects: Wood rotters; Poisonous mushroom; Antibiotics;Mycorrhizal associations;Diseases caused by mushrooms,etc.………….................…2
Puccinia graminis (Rust fungi)
Alternaria (Fungi imperfecti)
General features; Systematic position; Habit and habitat (occurrence or distribution); Somatic structure. Reproduction: Asexual reproduction (Conidia formation). Life cycle: Diagrammatic representation. Economic importance: ‘Early blight of potato’; Symptoms of diseases; Other diseases caused by different species of Alternaria. eg. A. solani cause ‘Early blight‘diseases in potato and members of Solanaceae, A. brassicae A. brassicicola cause’ leaf spot disease’ in Crucifers, etc.; Control measure (Chemical, Biological and Agriculture practice)………………………………………………………..........................…1
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM)
Introduction of mycorhiza: Types of mycorrhiza (a. Ectomycorrhiza [Ectotrophic] and b. Endomycorrhiza [Endotrophic]). VAM (Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae): Vesciular (vesicle–storage organs or as resting spores) and Arbuscules (dichotomously branched, complex haustoria) containing intercellular hyphae. Classification (Class–Zygomycetes, Order–Mucorales, Family–Endogonaceae, Genus: Gloius, Glomerulus, Gigaspora, Sclerocystis, etc.). Economic importance: Biofertilizers .………………………………………1
Economic importance of fungi: Useful activities: Destruction of organic waste; Formation of humus; Release of carbon dioxide; Role of fungi in medicine (a. Antibiotics: Pencilliim, Streptomycin, etc., b. Ergot: Claviceps purpurea used in veterinary and human medicine, c. Vitamines: vitamin B, vitamin D, Biotin, Riboflavin, Biotin, Thiamine etc., d. Therapeutic uses: Extract of Aspergillus niger and Sacchaaromyces cerevisiae have proved in extreme cases of maligacy, e. Alcohol fermentation, f. Steroids.); Role of fungi in Industry (Baking, Brewing, Cheese industry, Preparation of organic acids [Oxalic acids, Citric acid, Gluconic acid, Gallic acid]); Fungi as food (Mushroom, morels, and yeast); Fungal enzyme (Invertase, Amylase, Pertinose); Mycorrhizae (VAM); Growth hormones (Giberrelin); Use of fungi in Bio–assays; Fungi as test organism.(eg Neurospora). Harmful effects: Plant diseases (eg. Rust disease, Smut disease, Blight disease, etc.); Destruction of wood; Destruction of utensils and other products (eg electrical equipment, Textiles, papers, leather, optical instrument, etc.; Food spoilage (Dairy product, Fruits, Canning products, Bakery products, Meat, Vegetable, etc); Mycoses; Poisonous Mushroom…………………………………………………………….……………1
Suggested Readings:
2. Gangulee, H.C. and Kar, A.K. 1994. College Botany Vol II. New Central Book Agency, Calcutta.
3. Webster, J. 1993. Introduction to Fungi. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, New Delhi.
4. Adhikari, M.K. 2000. Mushrooms of Nepal. P.U. Printers, Kathmandu, Nepal.
5. Pandey, S.N. and Trivedi, P.S. 1994. A Text Book of Botany Vol. 1. Vikash Publishing House, New Delhi.
6. Deacon, J. W. 2005. Fungal Biology. Blackwell Publishing, UK.
7. Smith, G.M. 2004. Cryptogamic Botany, Vol I. McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., N.Y.
Unit 3.B. Lichens:
Introduction of Lichens:
General features; Mode of nutrition–biotrophic; Distribution; Habit and Habitat (Saxicolous, Corticolous, Terricolous)…...………………………………………….1
Lichen thallus:
ii. Foliose lichen,
iii. Fruiticose lichen. Classification: On the basis of (
i) nature of the fungal element and
(ii) kind of the frutification. Thallus on the basis of the nature of the fungal element: I. Ascolichen (fungal component is an Ascomycete), Sub divided into two according to ascocarp–
(a) Gymnocarpeae (ascocarp-an apothecium type)
(b) Pyrenocarpeae (ascocarp-perithecium type) eg. Parmelia, Physcia, Usnea, Cladonia, Graphis, Verrucaria, etc.
II. Basidiolichen/Hymenolichen (fungal component is a Basidiomycetes) eg. Cora, Rhipidonema. Thallus on the basis of the fruitification (structure of asci and ascocarps):
I. Hymeno-ascolichens with unitunicate asci paraphyses in apothecia;
II. Loculo-ascolichens with bitunicate asci in apothecia .or hysterothecia;
III. Loculo-ascolichens with bitunicate asci in pseudothecia;
IV. Deuterolichens (The lichenes imperfecti): mostly sterile lichens that produce no spores………………………………….…………………………………...…1
Structure of lichen thallus: Anatomy and Morphology. On the basis of internal structure of thallus, two groups: (i) Structure of Homoiomerous Lichen thallus, (ii) Structure of Heteromerous Lichen thallus. Structure associated with the lichen thallus: (i) Breathing pores (ii) Cyphellae (iii) Cephellae (iv) Cephalodia (v) Isidia. Nutrition ………………….……………………..…………………………..1
Reproduction: Vegetative reproduction (Fragmentation and propagules (i) Soredia (ii) Isidia); Reproduction of Algal component (phycobiont): (i) Cell division (ii) Hormogonia (iii) Akinetes (iv) Heterocysts; Reproduction of fungal component (mycobiont): (i) Asexual reproduction (sporulation) (ii) Sexual reproduction: Oogamous type (Male reproductive organ spermogonium; Female reproductive organ carpogonium; Fertilization; Post-plasmogamy changes; Fruiting body: (i) apothecia (ii) Perithecia…………………………………………………………..……..……..……..……1
Subject: Plant Diversity & Ecology Practical Year:1 (BOT102 ) Practical (Major/Minor)
1.Bacteria
1. Study of sterilization Techniques (Structure and Operation of Hot Air Oven, Autoclave, Ultraviolet chamber, Incubator).
2. Preparation of culture media (Preparation of Nutrient Agar (solid and broth).
3. Culture of Bacteria (Soil microorganism by Serial Dilution Plating Technique, on Nutrient Agar medium).
4. Study of gram positive and gram negative staining of bacteria.
5. Study of vegetative and reproductive structure of Anabaena/ Oscillatoria and Spirulina (Preparation of slide by using iodine and glycerol).
2. Fungi
1. Preparation of culture media –Natural media –PDA (Potato dextrose agar).
2. The culture of Aspergillus in Lab. (Bell jar method)
3. Field visit for collection of the infected plant host. (Albugo, Alternaria, Puccinia)
4. Study of habit and habitat, vegetative structure, symptoms of diseases (Albugo, Puccinia, Alternaria)
5. Study of vegetative reproduction through section cutting: conidia – Albugo, and different spores of Puccinia (Uredospores, Teleutospores, Basidispores , Pycnidiospores, aeciospores) by preparing semi-permanent slide.
6. Study of different spores of Agaricus (Basidiospores); Aspergillus (Conidia); Alternaria (Conidia) by preparing semi-permanent slide.
7. Study of reproductive parts in Albugo (Oogonium, Antheridium); Aspergillus (Cleistothecium, ascus, ascospores); Peziza (Apothecium, asci, ascospores) by preparing semi-permanent slide and permanent slide.
3. Lichens
1. Study of habit and habitat, morphological study of different types of Lichens (crustose, foliose, fruticose)
2. Anatomy of vegetative structure (Internal structure of thallus). i) V.S of Homomerous thallus, ii)V.S of Heteromerous thallus by preparing semi-permanent slide.
3. Reproductive structure of foliose and fruticose lichens by preparing semi-permanent slide.
4. Study of museum specimens and permanent slides.
5. Field visit for the collection of different lichens species.
4. Algae
1. Study of permanent slides for Chlamydomonas, Vaucheria, Chara, Navicula, Fucus and Batrachospermum.
2. Study of vegetative and reproductive parts in Chlamydomonas, Vaucheria, and Chara through slide preparation.
3. Study of vegetative and reproductive parts in in Navicula, Fucus and Batrachospermum through slide preparation.
4. Field visit. (Collection and preservation of representative algal species)
5. Bryophytes
1. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Riccia (Habit, dorsal and ventral surface, VS of thallus, VS of thallus through antheridium, VS of thallus through archegonium, VS of thallus through sporophyte).
2. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Pellia (Habit, dorsal and ventral surface, VS of thallus, VS of thallus through antheridium, VS of thallus through archegonium, LS of sporogonium).
3. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Anthoceros (Habit, dorsal and ventral surface, VS of thallus, VS of thallus through antheridium, VS of thallus through archegonium, TS/VS of sporophyte).
4. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Polytrichum (Habit, VS through leaf, TS of stem; LS of the apex of male and female branches; LS of sporophyte).
5. Comparative study of saprophytes in Riccia, Marchantia, Pellia, Antheceros and Funaria/Polytrichum to study the sterilization of sporogenous tissue in bryophytes(Students should be motivated to make drawings directly on the practial sheets in the laboratory and efforts should be made to engage the students in the lab throughout the practical session.)
6. Pteridophyta
1. General survey of pteridophytes: Different species of representative types (Lycopodium, Selaginella, Equisetum, Marsilea, and Pteris) as well as economically important species from nearby locality (if possible) should be dealt with.
2. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Lycopodium: Morphology of the sporophyte (one representative from each sub genus); internal structure of the stem (L. clavatum, L. cernum, L. serratum); structure of sporophylls; Structure of gametophyte (using permanent slide); early sporophyte (using permanent slide)
3. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Selaginella: Morphology of the sporophyte; internal structure of the rhizophore, stem; structure of strobilus and sporophylls (micro- and mega-sporophylls); Structure of micro- and mega-gametophyte (through permanent slides); early sporophyte (using permanent slide).
4. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Equisetum: Morphology of the sporophyte; internal structure of the stem; structure of strobilus; Structure of gametophyte (through permanent slides); early sporophyte (permanent slide).
5. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Marsilea: Morphology of the sporophyte; internal structure of the stem; structure of sporocarp (permanent slide)
6. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures in Pteris: Morphology of the sporophyte; internal structure of the rachis and pinnules; structure of sorus; Structure of sporangium; structure of prothallus (permanent slide); early sporophyte (permanent slide)
7. Study of stellar system in Lycopodium, Selaginella, Equisetum, Marsilea and Pteris.
7. Gymnosperms
1. Study of vegetative and reproductive structures, T.S. of coralloid root, leaflet and rachis of Cycas
2. Study of vegetative, reproductive structures, T.S. of young stem and needle of Pinus.
3. Study of vegetative, reproductive structures, T.S. of stem of Ephedra
8. Paleobotany
1. Study of museum specimens for different fossil types.
2. Study of museum specimens and permanent slide for external and internal structure of Rhynia.
9. Ecology
1. To enumerate plants of the study area.
2. To determine the minimum size of the quadrat by species area curve method.
3. To determine the minimum number of quadrat to be sampled in study area.
4. To determine density of different plant species by quadrat method.
5. To determine frequency of different plant species by quadrat method.
6. To determine coverage of different plant species by quadrat method.
7. To determine importance value index (IVI) of different plant species by quadrat method.
8. To determine pH of various soil samples.
9. To determine texture of given soil samples.
10. To determine humus content of the soil samples
11. To study food web of a pond ecosystem
12. To study food web of a grassland ecosystem.
13. To estimate dissolved oxygen in polluted and non-polluted water samples.
14. To study ecological anatomy of hydrophytes.
15. To study ecological anatomy of xerophytes.
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